The purpose of this report is to summarize information concerning the original natural status of fish and wildlife in the Hudson-Mohawk corridor, what changes have resulted from man's activities, to what extent preservation or restoration of fish and wildlife abundance is desirable and practicable, what measures are being taken to achieve such goals, and what additional measures may be required. The Hudson-Mohawk corridor is defined as the Hudson River from the Verrazano Narrows Bridge to the Adirondack Park boundary near Corinth and the Mohawk River from its mouth to the vicinity of Rome) including the adjacent lands for a distance of one mile from either shore of the river except for the Adirondack and Catskill Parks.

Under primitive conditions water quality in the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers was high, but low fertility probably resulted in a relatively low productivity. There were fewer species of fish in the native fauna than are found today, although they were often more abundant. In the saline waters about the mouth of the Hudson shellfish were abundant and uncontaminated. Most native wildlife, especially migrating waterfowl, was more abundant in the "corridor" then than now.

Following settlement, the increase in human population in the corridor, the growth of cities and industries, lumbering, and the expansion of cultivated land, as well as many associated factors, had a pronounced effect on fish and wildlife. Impoundments and other alterations changed habitat conditions along the rivers. Drainage from agricultural lands and discharge of sewage and industrial wastes into the streams, although often increasing fertility, brought about a deterioration in water quality. While increased fertility makes waters more productive biologically, much of the total productivity at present is not in the form of high value food or game fish. In the Hudson River, because of over fishing and loss in quality of the fish product, the commercial fishery for shad, striped bass, sturgeon, etc. has reached a low ebb. Chiefly because of pollution, an oyster resource which had originally been deemed inexhaustible has been annihilated, and clams, although plentiful, are unfit to eat. With respect to wildlife, the coming of civilization has resulted in radical changes in habitat, much being virtually destroyed by man's occupation. Aside from a few species that were eventually wiped out, waterfowl have probably suffered most. In general, however, present-day game species have exhibited an ability to thrive in their new environment provided their habitat is not completely destroyed and they are given reasonable protection.

The Division of Fish and Game of the Conservation Department has an active research and management program in this and other watersheds to promote the best use of the fish and wildlife resources for the benefit of the people of the State. With respect to both fish and wildlife, populations are inventoried and studies are carried on regarding the factors that control the productivity of the various species and the effect of public hunting, trapping and fishing. The impact of industrial operations, such as dredging in the Hudson River and Consolidated Edison's proposed pumped-storage plant at Cornwall, is evaluated. Pollution and pesticide investigations are made, and a comprehensive water quality study on the Hudson is being undertaken. Waters in the Marine District are continually being sampled to determine whether they can be certified for taking shellfish for food. Other fish management activities include stream improvement, development of boat-launching sites and water chestnut eradication. Game management includes development work on State game lands and making agreements with landowners of large tracts to provide hunting opportunity. Educational work among sportsmen's' clubs and the public to prevent habitat damage and to promote good public relations on fish and wildlife matters is done. Greater understanding between the Department and the local people throughout the State with respect to fish and wildlife problems is also facilitated by the Fish and Wildlife Management Act Program.

The principal goals and recommendations for the immediate future revolve around abatement of pollution, improvement of water quality and rehabilitation (as well as avoiding further deterioration insofar as possible) of fish and wildlife habitat. Continued research to obtain needed information is, of course, implied. At the same time management measures to meet a wide variety of more specific problems will need to be applied. However, public recreational opportunity is a major component of the proper use of fish and wildlife resources, and programs to promote this to the fullest degree compatible with other interests should be continued and expanded. Cooperation between State agencies, industry and the public will facilitate-achieving the potential that exists.

The Hudson River, below its junction with the Mohawk River, is a large deep stream. From Peekskill to its mouth it is essentially an arm of the sea and its waters become increasingly brackish. Tidal action, however., extends northward to the vicinity of Troy. Under primitive conditions water quality was high, but low fertility probably resulted in a relatively low productivity. There were fewer species of fish in the native fauna than are found today, although they were often more abundant. Brook trout was an important species in most of the tributary streams, while in the main river a wider variety of fish occurred including a number of anadromous species. Prior to construction of the Troy dam, shad ascended much farther upstream than at present and before 1850 reached at least as far as the Battenkill River. It seems certain that this species was used by the Indians of the area long before the coming of the whiteman. So also were striped bass and sturgeon, although they were less abundant than the shad. Despite a prevalent belief to the contrary, the Hudson was not an Atlantic salmon river although stray salmon were recorded in the Hudson River estuary by DeKay in 1842. Also, the highly saline waters about its mouth supported an abundance of shellfish, principally oysters and clams but including scallops and lobsters.

In its original state, the Mohawk River above Cohoes Falls constituted a natural water unit about which information is somewhat fragmentary. Brook trout was a major species, especially in the tributary streams, while in the river proper there was a greater variety including smallmouth bass.

Prior to settlement, most of the upland was forested. South of Albany much of this forest was comprised of oaks and hickories, with some sycamores on the river flats and conifers in the tributary valleys. North of Albany pines predominated, but deciduous trees were numerous to the vicinity of Glens Falls. Along the river itself extensive marshes and flats existed. Most native wildlife was more abundant in the "corridor" then than now. This was especially true with respect to migrating waterfowl, but breeding populations were greater as well. A few species occurred which had disappeared by the end of the 19th century - notably the elk, moose, panther, timber wolf, wild turkey and passenger pigeon.

Following settlement, the increase in human population in the corridor, the growth of cities and industries, lumbering, and the expansion of cultivated land, as well as many associated factors, had a pronounced effect on fish and wildlife. The entire course of the Mohawk River was changed radically by creation of the Erie Canal and, later, the Barge Canal. The dam at Troy and other dams as well as the Champlain Canal altered the upper Hudson. Navigation channels have been dredged and shallows filled. Improvements have increased the water area materially, e.g., the Crescent Lake section of the Mohawk River. Drainage from agricultural lands and discharge of sewage and industrial wastes into the streams, although often increasing fertility, has brought about a deterioration in water quality. While increased fertility makes the waters more productive biologically, much of the total productivity at present is not in the form of high value food or game fish. Both the Hudson and Mohawk contain large poundages of underutilized fish including carp and goldfish. Also, many persons consider fish taken from these rivers unfit to eat because of objectionable taste. Introduced plants have added to the change in conditions. Some 3,000 acres of the Mohawk-Hudson are infested with the water chestnut (Trapa) an introduced plant. Another introduced and potentially undesirable plant, the floating heart (Nymphoides), has been increasing in the Hudson above the Troy dam.

Through the creation of canals, as well as in other ways associated with man's activities, fish not native to the Hudson-Mohawk drainage spread into the area. The yellow perch is an example. Also, carp and goldfish became established. Over the years., interest in sport fishing grew substantially, and brown trout (from Europe) and rainbow trout (from the western United States) were introduced to augment fishing opportunity.

The Hudson River fishery for anadramous, catadramous and brackish-water fish has been dominated during the course of its recorded history by the American shad. In 1887, the annual catch was 2,556,000 pounds worth $143,040; in 1964, the figures were 78,200 pounds and $16,993. Other species taken over the years have been alewife, blueback herring, striped bass, American eel,, shortnosed sturgeon, Atlantic sturgeon, white perch, Atlantic tomcod and American smelt. In recent years '(1913-1964), the fishery for these species reached its peak during World War II and the one or two years immediately before and after that war. By 1964, because of overfishing and loss in quality of the fish product due to industrial pollution, the fishery had reached a low ebb in both value and production. This was similar in many ways to the fishery doldrums experienced on the Hudson River in the early 1900's. The present discouraging situation is reflected in the reduction of fishermen and gear. In 1935, there were 71 regular fishermen on the river; today, there are six. Total yardage of haul seines has been reduced from 6,278 in 1935 to 385 in 1964. Similar reductions have occurred in all fishing gears.

Early reports indicate that the Hudson River and its contiguous waters² consisted of not less than 350 square miles of productive oyster grounds. As recently as 1839 it was estimated that these waters produced in excess of one and a half million bushels of oysters annually. Since then many of these "natural growth" oyster producing areas were destroyed by overfishing and excessive siltation, caused by increasing populations and changes in the natural environment brought about by advancing civilization. Finally, mismanagement and lack of proper sanitary controls have caused the annihilation of an oyster resource which had originally been deemed inexhaustible.

With respect to wildlife, man's occupation of the area brought about many changes. As has been noted, several species were eventually wiped out by over-hunting, loss of habitat or a combination of these and other factors. Present-day game, such as deer, squirrels, rabbits, grouse and waterfowl, were especially sought because they were a prime source of food. In general, however, these species have exhibited an ability to thrive in their new environment provided their habitat is not completely destroyed and they are given reasonable protection, In fact the cottontail increased in abundance with the development of agricultural lands. Pollution itself has not been as great a threat to game as to fish, except in the case of waterfowl. Pollution, plus the introduced water chestnut (Traps natans), navigational dredging and filling, and marsh destruction for other purposes are seriously depleting this wildlife resource.

On the other hand., interest in sport hunting led to introduction of the ring-necked pheasant from Asia. This species thrives on agricultural land and has become well established throughout the Hudson-Mohawk Valley.

Much of the wooded land within the corridor has been reduced to small isolated blocks which are in no particular pattern and often contain highly vulnerable pockets of game. This is especially true in the case of deer, grouse and squirrels. Beyond this disconnected woodland situation, other striking changes and limiting factor "signs of the times" are (1) loss of "edge" in clean-farmed hedgerows, (2) drainage or filling of marshes, swamps and swales, and (3) heavy posting of lands against hunting. Destruction of habitat results in depleted game populations and more hunting pressure on the remaining lands. This leads to increased posting of the latter, and places a greater burden on agencies such as the Conservation Department to attempt to stop this trend and provide recreational opportunity for the general public.

The distribution of fish species varies greatly within the area, as described in the Biological Survey reports. For present purposes we simply list the principal kinds of freshwater fishes now found in the main streams of the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers, without reference to their abundance or the sections which they inhabit. Included are:

In addition, from the Troy dam southward, are found shad, striped bass, herrings, sea sturgeon and eels. Only one species found in the Hudson River has been classed as endangered on the list of rare and threatened species. This is the short-nosed sturgeon, formerly fairly numerous in lower part of the river. Of the shellfish, only clams are now important. Appendices I and II give more detailed accounts of the status of certain anadromous fish and shellfish.

The most common small game species available include pheasant, cottontail rabbit, quail, gray squirrel, ruffed grouse, woodcock and raccoon. Waterfowl are moderately abundant, chiefly during migration, deer are numerous, and bear are encountered occasionally. Many of the fur-bearing animals such as muskrat, skunk, raccoon and beaver are plentiful and in some instances cause crop damage or become a nuisance in other ways.

The Division of Fish and Game has an active management program in this and other watersheds organized on a regional basis. Four of the nine regions include parts of the Hudson-Mohawk corridor. These are: Region 6 headquartered at Warrensburg (Fulton, Hamilton, Saratoga, Warren and Washington Counties); Region 7 headquartered at Stamford (Albany, Columbia, Delaware, Greene, Montgomery, Otsego, Rensselaer, Schenectady and Schoharie Counties); Region 8 headquartered at Poughkeepsie (Dutchess, Orange, Putnam, Rockland, Sullivan, Ulster and Westchester Counties); and Region 9 headquartered at Oakdale (Bronx, Kings, Nassau, Queens, Richmond and Suffolk Counties).

Fish management activities include biological surveys, coordination of stocking, acquisition of public fishing rights and boat-access sites, coordination work directed toward prevention of environmental damage and public relations work on fisheries matters. In addition to work administered through the regional offices, the Division operates research projects, pollution and pesticide investigations and a unit for stream improvement and development of boat-launching areas. A water chestnut eradication program is in progress, Also, highway construction projects of the Department of Public Works are reviewed to prevent unnecessary damage to fishing streams.

Primarily in relation to striped bass, a three-year study is underway to evaluate the effect of Consolidated Edison's proposed pumped-storage plant at Storm King Mountain near Cornwall on the Hudson River. The study is being financed by the company and was planned jointly by the company, the Conservation Department and the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. A comprehensive water quality study on the Hudson is being undertaken by the U. S. Public Health Service, subject to review by the Conservation Department.

The waters in the Marine District are continually being sampled to determine whether they can be certified for taking shellfish for food. Pollution is too great in the lower Hudson River and Raritan Bay area to permit such certification at present. However, clams are abundant in this area and are being transplanted to other areas where they can purify themselves and then be marketed. Research concerning techniques that might be used in purification plants for cleansing clams is also being carried on.

With respect to wildlife, each region conducts game inventory surveys, stocking of certain species and development work on State lands. The regional offices enter into cooperator agreements with landowners of large tracts to provide hunting opportunity. They also carry on coordination and educational work among sportsmen's' clubs and the public to prevent habitat damage and to promote good public relations in wildlife matters. In addition, the Division operates several wildlife research projects (pathology, waterfowl, upland birds, small mammals, cover plants, big game, game take survey, marsh ecology and Adirondack deer studies) on problems of wide application, It also cooperates with the U. S. Corps of Engineers in locating spoil areas, in connection with dredging along the Hudson River, which will minimize damage to important waterfowl habitat.

The Fish and Wildlife Management Act program is designed to provide additional recreational opportunity for sportsmen. Through the use of a cooperative agreement between a landowner and the Conservation Department, both the landowner and the sportsmen benefit. District FWMA boards, each of which consists of a sportsman, a landowner and a board of supervisors representative, meet periodically to discuss and solve problems. There are approximately 250,000 acres now under FWMA cooperative agreements. The goal within the next five years is to raise this to 500,000 acres.

The freshwater fisheries potential in this watershed is very great, several times that now being attained even though recreational fishing is important and there is some commercial fishing. Much of the corridor is close to centers of populations, and even the more remote areas are heavily fished if sufficiently attractive. The following may be listed as the principal goals contemplated at present.

1. Pollution abatement and improvement of water quality.
2. Prevention of unnecessary damage from dredging and filling.
3. Provision of better access for fishing.
4. Eradication of water chestnut.
5. Research studies on fish populations and factors affecting them in order to obtain a greater sustained yield of desirable species.

Similarly, there is opportunity for improving the status of anadromous fish and shellfish. The following goals seem most important.

1. Restoration of the environment to a suitable state for reproduction and growth of the various species.
2. Control and abatement of sewage pollution.
3. Establishment of flexible regulations of the shad fishing to increase the population as pollution is abated.
4. Expansion of the sport fishery for striped bass in the Hudson River.
5. Expansion of the program for utilizing the extensive clam resources in the lower reaches of the Hudson River and in Raritan Bay.
6. Restoration of oyster seed beds in the Hudson River in the vicinity of Haverstraw Bay.

For wildlife there is also opportunity for better management of the resources. Because of the large human population, there is need for both maximum production and maximum utilization of game that is feasible on a sustained yield basis. The following goals may be cited. 

1. Determine how good management practices can be applied to private land.
2. Increase the value to the hunter of the opportunity to go hunting.
3. Determine how to aid the most desirable species and how to control the less desirable ones.
4. Find better ways, compatible with other land use practices, of interesting the landowner in the game crop.
5. Develop better methods of promoting game abundance.

The following recommendations are proposed relating to freshwater fish.

1. Environmental protection, including improved water quality, will require a continuous program of effort and this is strongly recommended.
2. Even in a suitable environment, however, a maximum production of desirable fish on a sustained yield basis does not occur by itself. It is recommended that fish population management be intensified. This may often require selective harvesting of overabundant fish, and the commercial fishery potential of many of the fertile waters in this watershed is much higher than has yet been attained. A program of controlled expansion of commercial fisheries is needed, not only for the benefits of utilizing surpluses but also ' as a method of improving production of high-quality angling species.
3. Management of the many individual waters for their fish resources requires consideration of multiple-purpose planning because of inter-related factors. Hence a fish management plan should be considered as one phase of a larger plan.
4. Fish resource management is a long-term type of activity, and this should be recognized in setting up plans. It will be necessary not only to use existing means such as the proper stocking of hatchery output but to undertake research in fish population dynamics, including development of quantitative sampling techniques adequate for current inventory of the resources and for predicting future trends. There is also need to attack many specific problems such as cause of bad flavor in fish, how to develop profitable fisheries for species where expanded cropping is desirable and setting up water quality criteria adequate to maintain good conditions for fish resources.
5. Additional public boat-launching sites should be acquired and developed.
6. A study in depth on existing water quality and hydrology of the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers as related to the life history and distribution of fish populations should be undertaken.
7. Information is necessary to evaluate the impact of both present and projected water demands by industry and municipal agencies on the fisheries resource. Such an investigation could be a joint State-Federal project and could be coordinated appropriately with other planned or projected studies by Federal agencies such as the U. S. Public Health Service, etc.

The following recommendations are proposed relating to anadromous fish and shellfish.

1.  It is recommended that restoration of the environment of these species, as well as other conservation measures relating to them, be considered basically a State function aided by cooperative Federal-State research projects in areas where additional data are necessary to guide rehabilitation and management.
2.  While State and city pollution abatement programs are in progress, intensive studies on the effects of industrial use of the waters involved should be carried on to evaluate the total impact on the fisheries and to serve as a guide in developing means of minimizing damage in the future,
3.  Studies should be made to develop techniques for minimizing losses to fish eggs and larvae as well as to juvenile and adult fish, from industrial and domestic water use.
4.  Flexible regulations should be established to permit sufficient shad and herrings to spawn. Also, educational programs to encourage wide consumption of these species will be necessary to overcome buyer prejudice with respect to the off-flavor of anadromous fish from the Hudson River.
5.  Because striped bass are underutilized in the Hudson River, an educational program is needed, together with appropriate access facilities for fishermen, to promote more sport fishing for this species.
6. The clam transplantation program should be expanded to cover Raritan Bay where extremely heavy concentrations of clams exist in spite of the pollution. Purification plants offer another possible means of facilitating the safe use of these clams for food that should be studied further.
7.  It is recommended that measures to restore oyster seed beds in the Harverstraw Bay area be a joint program between industry and the State.
8.  For striped bass anglers and other fishermen, it is recommended that boat-launching sites, fishing piers and possibly artificial reefs in appropriate locations be developed.

 The following recommendations are proposed relating to wildlife.

1. Protection of the existing good habitats, especially those in jeopardy (river marshes, etc.), is essential.
2. Even with respect to the best "natural" (good soil, etc.) areas, more knowledge must be acquired on how to produce optimum crops of game. In the corridor, this applies especially to the integration of management practices on woodlands and farmlands. Associated with this is the need for controlling nuisance wildlife.
3. Improved methods for determining hunter activity, success and satisfaction should be developed.
4. Acquisition of more game lands is a prime necessity, especially close to the larger centers of population.
5. Management of the many individual game ranges in any region of the State mandates multiple-purpose planning because of interrelated interests. This is especially true in the populated Hudson-Mohawk Valley. Therefore, a good game management plan should be part of any over-all plan for the whole corridor. Natural resources management is fundamental to the success of river valley planning.
6. Whether acquired or not, large tracts should be protected from further exploitation, desecration and pollution and dedicated to natural outdoor pursuits such as hiking, camping and hunting. Specifically for hunting, large acreages of prime river marshland should be preserved for waterfowl, and large acreages of productive farm-game habitat for upland game.
7. It should also be recognized that perpetuation of the whole wildlife community is important. The wide variety of native birds and animals is an invaluable heritage to be preserved insofar as is feasible. Those we call "game" are but a small minority of the total species for which we have responsibility. The other species not only play important roles in the different ecological associations but afford recreational enjoyment to an ever increasing number of people. A sound conservation program must take this into consideration. 

¹ A report prepared for the Hudson Valley Commission by the Division of Fish and Game of the New York State Conservation Department. This division is responsible for the administration and management of the fish and wildlife resources of the State. It is also active in the acquisition of boat-launching sites, fishing rights easements and wetlands under the Park and Recreation Land Acquisition Bond Act. The responsibility for acquisition of multiple-use lands is shared between tne Division of Fish and Game and the Division of Lands and Forests. Units within the Division of Fish and Game that provided the pertinent data for this report include the Bureau of Game, the Bureau of Fish and the Bureau of Marine Fisheries.

²With respect to shellfish, it seems desirable to consider the waters about the mouth of the Hudson River, including Raritan Bay, as part of the area to which this report applies.